Islam: Denominations and Schools of Thinking
Answers to Questions regarding Denominations and schools of thinking
Denominations and Schools of Thinking
Understanding the Diversity within Islam
Islam is a diverse faith with various branches and legal schools. This section explains the key differences and common foundations shared across different groups.
Major Branches and Spiritual Paths
The core difference between **Sunni** (approx. 85-90% of Muslims) and **Shia** (or Shi’ite) Islam stems from a historical dispute over **who should have succeeded Prophet Muhammad** as the leader of the Muslim community (**Caliph/Imam**) after his death in 632 CE.
Key Distinctions:
| Feature | Sunni (People of the Tradition) | Shia (Partisans of Ali) |
|---|---|---|
| **Succession** | Believed the Caliph should be chosen through **consensus** (**Shura**). The first four Caliphs were chosen this way. | Believed the leader (**Imam**) should be a divinely appointed successor from the Prophet’s family (**Ahl al-Bayt**), starting with his cousin and son-in-law, **Ali ibn Abi Talib**. |
| **Leadership** | The leader (Caliph/Imam) is primarily a political and military figure. | The leader (Imam) holds both spiritual and temporal authority, with infallibility in religious matters. |
| **Imam** | A general term for a prayer leader or scholar. | A title reserved for the divinely guided successors of the Prophet (Twelver Shia follow 12 Imams). |
Despite these theological and political differences, both groups share the same core beliefs in God, the Qur’an, and the Five Pillars of Islam.
**Sufism** (or **Taṣawwuf**) is the mystical and ascetic dimension of Islam. It is not a separate sect, but rather a spiritual path practiced by both Sunni and Shia Muslims, focusing on direct communion with God through devotional practices, self-discipline, and deep introspection.
Core Concepts:
- **Dhikr:** Constant remembrance of God, often involving chanting or breathing exercises.
- **Faṇāʾ:** The spiritual concept of “annihilation of the self,” where the ego is dissolved to experience the absolute reality of God.
- **Tariqah:** A Sufi spiritual order or fraternity, led by a master (**Shaykh** or **Pir**).
- **The Whirling Dervishes:** The Mevlevi Order, founded by the poet Rumi, is famous for its devotional spinning dance (**Sema**).
Sufis were historically instrumental in spreading Islam peacefully through Asia and Africa, emphasizing the love and intimacy of God over purely legalistic observance.
Schools of Islamic Law (Fiqh)
The four main Sunni legal schools, or **Madhahib** (singular: Madhhab), are named after their founding scholars. They primarily differ in the methodologies used to interpret the primary sources (Qur’an and Sunnah), leading to minor differences in rulings regarding daily practice (e.g., specific prayer postures or details of marriage contracts).
| School Name | Founder (Died) | Geographical Focus |
|---|---|---|
| **Hanafi** | Abu Hanifa (d. 767 CE) | Turkey, Central Asia, South Asia (most widely followed) |
| **Maliki** | Malik ibn Anas (d. 795 CE) | North Africa, West Africa |
| **Shafi’i** | Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi’i (d. 820 CE) | Egypt, East Africa, Southeast Asia |
| **Hanbali** | Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855 CE) | Saudi Arabia (most strict on scriptural interpretation) |
All four are considered equally valid and orthodox. A Muslim generally follows the interpretations of the Madhhab prevalent in their region or the one they feel most comfortable with.
Islamic jurisprudence (**Fiqh**) relies on a hierarchy of sources (**Uṣūl al-Fiqh**) to derive practical legal rulings.
- **The Qur’an:** The literal word of God; the primary source.
- **The Sunnah:** The practices, sayings, and silent approvals of the Prophet Muhammad, as recorded in the Ḥadīth literature.
- **Ijmā‘ (Consensus):** The unanimous agreement of the qualified Muslim scholars or the consensus of the community on a specific legal point after the death of the Prophet.
- **Qiyās (Analogical Reasoning):** A method of deduction where a ruling for a new issue is derived by analogy from a ruling in the Qur’an or Sunnah that shares the same effective cause.
These sources ensure that Islamic law is both rooted in revelation and applicable to changing times and new situations.
These two terms define the two primary approaches to religious knowledge and legal practice in Islam:
Ijtihād (اجتهاد – Effort/Diligence):
- **Definition:** The independent reasoning, effort, and scholarly exertion of a fully qualified jurist to derive a ruling on a legal question from the fundamental sources of Islam (Qur’an and Sunnah).
- **Status:** Considered a dynamic process vital for addressing contemporary issues where no explicit text exists.
Taqlīd (تقليد – Imitation/Following):
- **Definition:** Following the legal rulings of a recognized scholar, jurist, or one of the established schools of law (Madhahib).
- **Status:** This is the required practice for the majority of Muslims who lack the scholarly qualifications to perform independent legal reasoning.
Theological Schools (Kalām)
Theological schools (**Kalām** or dialectical theology) focus on reconciling revelation with reason, addressing complex issues like the nature of God, free will versus predestination, and the status of the Qur’an.
The Main Sunni Schools:
- **Ash’arīyyah:** The most dominant school, emphasizing that God’s power is absolute and that human beings have acquired power to act, but all actions are ultimately created by God (a balance between free will and predestination).
- **Māturīdīyyah:** Similar to Ash’ari, but gives a slightly greater role to human reason. It is widely followed in Central Asia and by the Hanafi school.
Historical School (Rare Today):
- **Mu‘tazila:** A rationalist school from the early Abbasid era that emphasized God’s unity and justice, often leading to controversial conclusions regarding the creation of the Qur’an and absolute human free will.
The vast majority of Sunni Muslims today adhere to the doctrines of the Ash’ari or Maturidi schools.