Theology and Philosophy

**Kalām** (literally “speech” or “discourse”) is the discipline of seeking theological knowledge through dialectic and rational argument. It emerged primarily to defend and explain the foundational Islamic dogmas against skeptics and other religious groups.

Core Questions Addressed by Kalām:

• **The Nature of God:** How God’s attributes (e.g., knowledge, power, will) relate to His essence (**Tawḥīd** – Oneness).
• **The Createdness of the Qur’an:** Debating whether the Qur’an is eternal (uncreated) like God, or temporal (created). The mainstream view holds it is God’s eternal speech, manifested in created words.
• **Free Will vs. Predestination:** The major theological problem of reconciling God’s omnipotence and omniscience with human moral responsibility (Qadar).
• **Divine Justice (‘Adl):** Ensuring God is just and does only what is good, and how He rewards and punishes.
• **Prophecy and Revelation:** Establishing the necessity and authenticity of prophetic messages.

The two main schools of Kalām that solidified orthodox Sunni thought are the **Ash’arī** and the **Māturīdī** schools.

The reconciliation of God’s absolute sovereignty and human free will (**Qadar**) is one of the most complex theological issues. Islamic orthodoxy generally holds a nuanced position between absolute determinism and absolute free will.

The Concept of Kasb (Acquisition):

The dominant Ash’arī view, known as **Kasb** (acquisition) or **Iktisāb**, holds that:

• **God Creates the Act:** God is the sole creator of *everything*, including the power and motion of all human actions.
• **Human Acquires the Act:** The human being “acquires” or “chooses” the intent associated with the action, making them morally responsible for it. The choice itself is what leads to reward or punishment.

In essence, God enables the action, but the person determines the use of that ability, thereby preserving both God’s omnipotence and human accountability for good and evil deeds.

The Arabic term **Nafs** is often translated as ‘soul,’ ‘self,’ or ‘person,’ but in theological and ethical discourse, it describes the totality of the human psyche and spirit.

The Three States of the Nafs (Self):

• **Nafs al-Ammāra bi-s-Sū’ (The Self that Incites to Evil):** This is the base, instinctual self, driven by desires and passions, which must be restrained through discipline. (Qur’an 12:53)
• **Nafs al-Lawwāmah (The Reproaching Self):** The conscience; the self that recognizes sin and regrets wrongdoing, striving for purification. (Qur’an 75:2)
• **Nafs al-Muṭma’innah (The Tranquil/Satisfied Self):** The highest state, achieved through complete surrender and devotion to God, characterized by peace and inner certainty. (Qur’an 89:27)

Islamic spiritual development (Tazkiyat al-Nafs) is the journey from the first state to the third.

Islam teaches that the core message of monotheism has been sent by God to all peoples throughout history through various prophets. This results in a framework of respect, particularly for Abrahamic faiths.

Key Theological Distinctions:

• **Shared Origin:** Islam views Judaism and Christianity as faiths derived from the same divine source, referring to their followers as **Ahl al-Kitāb** (People of the Book).
• **Salvation:** The Qur’an states that God will judge all people based on their belief in God and the Day of Judgment, and their righteous conduct (Quran 2:62).
• **Prophetic Continuity:** Muslims believe that prophets such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus brought the same fundamental message of submission to the One God (**Islām**).
• **Religious Pluralism:** While calling people to Islam, the Qur’an strongly emphasizes religious tolerance and explicitly forbids compulsion in religion (Qur’an 2:256), mandating justice even toward adversaries.

**Revelation (**Wahy**) is the primary means by which humanity receives divine guidance. **Prophecy (**Nubuwwah**) is the office through which God communicates this guidance.

The Prophetic Tradition:

• **Continuous Chain:** Muslims believe God sent a long succession of prophets and messengers to every nation. The primary role was to warn against idolatry and teach monotheism and ethical living.
• **Messengers vs. Prophets:** Messengers (**Rasūl**) bring a new or refined law (e.g., Moses, Jesus, Muhammad), while Prophets (**Nabī**) uphold the existing law. Every Messenger is a Prophet, but not vice-versa.
• **Finality of Prophecy:** Muslims believe Prophet Muhammad is the **Seal of the Prophets** (**Khātam al-Nabiyyīn**), meaning the process of divine law-bearing revelation is complete, and the Qur’an is the final, perfect, and preserved scripture.
• **Types of Revelation:** The Qur’an is direct, verbal revelation, whereas the Sunnah (Prophetic tradition) is inspired, non-verbal guidance concerning how to implement the divine law.

**Islamic mysticism, or Sufism (**Taṣawwuf**), is the spiritual dimension of Islam focused on purifying the inner self (**Nafs**) to achieve direct, intimate knowledge and love of God. It is often described as the ‘heart’ of Islam.

Core Practices (Tarīqah – The Spiritual Path):

• **Dhikr (Remembrance):** The central practice, involving the rhythmic repetition of God’s names, phrases from the Qur’an, or specific formulas to bring the heart into a state of continuous remembrance.
• **Asceticism (Zuhd):** Voluntary simplicity and detachment from worldly distractions to focus on the eternal.
• **Murāqabah (Meditation/Vigilance):** Deep contemplation and self-monitoring to correct one’s intentions and actions.
• **Spiritual Guide (Shaykh/Pīr):** Sufis traditionally follow a spiritual teacher who provides personalized guidance and training on the path to divine knowledge.
• **Samā‘ (Listening):** Ritualized music and movement (like the whirling dervishes) used by some orders to achieve ecstatic spiritual states.

**Bid’ah** refers to an innovation in religious matters, specifically introducing practices or beliefs that are not rooted in the Qur’an or the Sunnah (Prophetic tradition). The term is highly debated among scholars.

The Two Interpretive Camps:

• **Strict Interpretation (Salafī/Wāhābī):** Views almost all non-Prophetic practices, especially in worship, as blameworthy innovations (**Bid’ah Ḍalālah**) that lead away from the purity of Islam.
• **Wider Interpretation (Majority of Classical Scholars):** Distinguishes between innovations in *worship* (which are prohibited) and beneficial innovations in *practice* or *culture* (**Bid’ah Ḥasanah**). Examples of the latter might include establishing madrasas (schools) or collecting and compiling the Qur’an in book form (which didn’t exist during the Prophet’s time).

The consensus remains that any innovation that contradicts a clear, established tenet of the faith is strictly forbidden.

The Qur’an and Hadith consistently emphasize that true faith (**Īmān**) is defined not just by verbal profession, but by moral character and righteous actions (**’Amal Ṣāliḥ**).

Key Attributes of the Mu’min (Believer):

• **Taqwā (God-Consciousness):** Maintaining an awareness of God in all actions, leading to moral restraint and piety.
• **Ṣabr (Patience and Perseverance):** Showing steadfastness in the face of adversity and remaining consistent in performing good deeds.
• **Amanah (Trustworthiness):** Being honest, fulfilling promises, and safeguarding trusts (financial or otherwise).
• **Iḥsān (Excellence and Sincerity):** Worshipping God as if one sees Him, and knowing that even if one cannot see Him, He surely sees them. This is the highest moral standard.
• **Justice and Equity:** Treating all people, regardless of background, with fairness and refusing to oppress others.